Under President Hugo Chavez, women have been mobilized to engage in his ‘participatory’ democracy while advocating for the Bolivarian Revolution. “Chavez has added a third discourse for women: ‘the country needs revolutionary mothers to advance social change.’ This discourse both honors and reinforces women’s traditional roles as self-sacrificing mothers and wives…” (Rakowski, 2008, 18) The leadership of current President and possible re-elect, Hugo Chavez, has defined the social and political background in Venezuela for the past thirteen years. Under his administration he has created the 1999 Constitution with various changes directly affecting those that have been marginalized over the past decades. Venezuela presents itself as a leading country in Latin America, determined to create a new socialist region. Yet, how does Chavez’s twenty first century socialism (social equality) empower a large part of the population, women?
In 1999, through feminist intervention and pressure, Chavez’s new constitutional convention created prohibitions against gender discrimination through the use of gender-inclusive language in the constitution. In 2000, INAMUJER (National Women’s Institute) was created with members of the 22,000 small, state supported women’s groups throughout the country. Ellner (2007, 151) argues that the 1999 Constitution has opened new possibilities for social organizations to interact with the state and thus provide a participatory democracy for Venezuelans. Rakowski (2008) states that the core group of feminists has succeeded in working together, supporting and sustaining five specific actions for the government to take in regards to feminist ratifications. Of those five, one was the Social Security Act and Article 88 of the Constitution which states: “Create a new Social Services Act that would enable the payment of monetary allowance to homemakers (based on the minimum wage).”(Rakowski, 2008, 23)
Article 88 of the Constitution states:
“The state guarantees the equality and equitable treatment of men and women in the exercise of the right to work. The state recognizes work at home as an economic activity that creates added value and produces social welfare and health. Housewives are entitled to Social Security in accordance with the law.” (VIO, 2008, http://womenandcuba.org/Documents/viowomen.pdf)
Following the 1999 Constitution came Chavez’s social welfare missions targeted at helping the poor out of poverty. Chavez’s first program focused on health care for people living in barrios outside the largest cities. With the help of Cuban doctors, and the recently turned state owned oil industry the social programs were deemed to be successful. Quickly thereafter more programs were created to include adult literacy, higher education scholarships/cash transfers, identification card access, the building of cheap stores in poor neighborhoods, women’s business training, and women’s housework payments. A majority of participants in these programs are women as are a majority of the workers and volunteers that facilitate these programs in the communities.
Once women are accepted into the program via an extensive multi-step application process, they receive 80% of the regular minimum wage which is about 1,780 Bsf/mo= 1,424 Bsf/mo.=$331 USD at the 4.3 legal currency exchange rate for 1-2 years. During this 1 to 2 year program the participants have to attend job training, be part of a community committee, and start a cooperative with other women. They are not allowed to have their own business and by the end of the program they need to present their coop project in order to get approved for a loan.
Questions remain however, as how effective and dependent these social missions are, especially a conditional cash transfer program like Madres Del Barrio? Also, what is the relationship between the development programs put in place under Chavez and women’s ability to mobilize? Since this program is specifically targeted at women, how does it change the relationship between women and the state? In this program, women are extremely dependent on state funds and training. How have such programs and Article 88 of the 1999 Constitution influenced the feminist movement?
Read more on the program at http://www.minmujer.gob.ve/madresdelbarrio/
Sources:
Rakowski, C. A., & Espina, G. (2008). The Gendered Nature of Venezuelan Populism. Conference Papers - American Sociological Association, 1.
Ellner, S., & Tinker Salas, M. (2007). Venezuela : Hugo Chávez and the decline of an "exceptional democracy" / edited by Steve Ellner and Miguel Tinker Salas. Lanham, Md. : Rowman & Littlefield Pub., c2007.
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